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Bateson, Greogory.
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Science, Philosophy and Religion,
Second Symposium Lyman Bryson and Louis Feinkelstein, eds., New York, Conference
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Boas, Franz. 1911.
The Mind of Primitive Man.
New York: Macmillian
Brewer, Devon D.
1995. "Cognitive Indicators of Knowledge in Semantic Domains."
Journal of Quantitative Anthropology
5:107-128.
Colby, Benjamin N.
1996. "Cognitive Anthropology."
Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology,
Vol. 1, pp. 209-215. Edited by David Levinson and Melvin Ember, sponsored by
Human Relations Area Files at Yale University. , New York: Henry Holt and
Company
D'Andrade, Roy G.
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D'Andrade, Roy G. 1995.
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Anthropology.
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Lomax, Alan. 1961.
"Song Structure and Social Structure."
Enthology, I:4, 425-51.
Levi-Strauss, C.
1963.
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Mithen, S. 1990.
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Ogburn, William
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Political Science Quarterly
Romney, A. Kimball
and Susan C. Weller. 1984. " Predicting Informant Accuracy from Patterns of
Recall among Informants."
Social Networks 6:59 77.
An informal
forerunner of consensus analysis applied to four sets of data from Bernard,
Killworth, and Sailer's data. The central assumption of the paper is stated as
"Specifically, the correlation of knowledge between individual A and individual
B is the product of the correlation of individual A with the 'truth' and of
individual B with the 'truth'." The estimated correlations of each informant
with the truth were calculated from recall data. These correlations (estimates
of competence) correlated with accuracy (from objective criteria) as follows:
fraternity group, r = .92; ham radio operators, r = .98; technical group, r =
.82; and office group, r = .79. (Abstract by Romney)
Romney, A.
Kimball,. Susan C. Weller and William H. Batchelder. 1986. "Culture as
Consensus: A Theory of Culture and Informant Accuracy."
American Anthropologist
88:313 338.
This paper
presents and tests a formal mathematical model for the analysis of informant
responses to systematic, multiple choice interview questions. It assumes a
situation in which the ethnographer does not know either how much each informant
knows about the cultural domain under consideration nor the answers to the
questions. The model simultaneously provides an estimate of the cultural
competence or knowledge of each informant and an estimate of the correct answer
to each question asked of the informant. In familiar cultural domains the model
produces good results from as few as four informants. The paper includes a table
showing the number of informants needed to provide stated levels of confidence
given the mean level of knowledge among the informants. (Abstract by Romney)
Romney, A.
Kimball. 1989. "Quantitative Models, Science and Cumulative Knowledge."
Journal of Quantitative Anthropology
1:153 223.
Contains
extensive background material about consensus analysis and traces it antecedents
back to Spearman's 1904 paper. Also contains examples of the application of
consensus analysis to social norms as represented by judgments of occupational
prestige. (Abstract by Romney)
Shennan, S.J.
1989. "Cultural transmission and cultural change." In S.E. van der Leeuw and R.
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Shennan, S.J.
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Carbondale: Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois
University at Carbondale, pp. 197-208.
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Archaeology of Human Ancestry: Power, Sex and Tradition. London: Routledge,
pp. 365-379.
Shore,
Bradd. 1996.
Culture in Mind: Cognition, Culture,
and the Problem of Meaning.
Oxford: Oxford University Press
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on mind, self, and emotion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Leading social scientists present and discuss contemporary concepts of culture
with particular regard to understanding their influence upon aspects of
subjective experience, social practice, and individual behavior. The primary
focus is centered on the role of symbols and meaning in the development of mind,
self, and emotion. Several major questions regarding the interaction between
cultural concepts and human behavior are explored. In addition the recent
methodological and conceptual problems surrounding the definition and study of
meaning are investigated.
Sorokin, Pitirim
A. 1937. Social and Cultural Dynamics. , 4 vols. New York: American Book
Co.
Spradley, James P, ed. 1972. Culture and cognition: Rules, maps, and plans.
San Francisco: Chandler.
———. 1979. The Ethnographic Interview. New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston.
———. 1980. Participant observation. New York: Holt, Rinehart &Winston.
Shows the beginning student how to do the form of fieldwork called
participant observation. This is an excellent step-by-step tutor that
discusses each step of this method in explicit detail. The format presents the
clear objectives, concise descriptions, and educational exercises needed to
actively utilized qualitative research.
Tyler,
Stephen A. ed. 1969.
Cognitive Anthropology.
New
York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston
Weller, Susan C. 1987.
"Shared Knowledge, Intracultural Variation, and Knowledge Aggregation."
American Behavioral Scientist
31:178 193.
Werner, Oswald and G. Mark Schoepfle. 1987. Systematic fieldwork. Vol. 1,
Foundations of ethnography and interviewing. Newbury Park CA: Sage
Publications.
Discussion of several structural elements regarding a modern theory of
ethnography. Focuses in general on cognitive or ethnoscience ethnographies.
Several common concepts, assumptions, and methods of research are investigated
using a unified theoretical approach. In particular, issues influencing
ethnographic theory, fieldwork, and interview are discussed at length. The main
goal is to systematize the ethnographic process through a commitment to an
epistemology that exploits analogy and an explicit theory of lexical/semantic
fields. Useful for educated insight on effective ethnographic methodology.
Wright, Susan, ed. 1994. Anthropology of organizations. London:
Routledge.
Artificial
Intelligence contributes to KM in three ways. First, by developing models for
knowledge processing of individual minds to help us understand how it works.
Second, develop models for knowledge processing in a collective of minds. And
third, develop tools to help make us smarter in managing our knowledge. The
first two contributions are toward a scientific understanding while the third
one is not.
Winston, Patrick Henry. 1992. Artificial Intelligence. 3rd ed.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Provides an expansive and detailed investigation of the scientific field called
artificial intelligence. Reflects the progress made since the previous
edition. The work is divided into three general categories: a) knowledge
representation and reasoning methods that utilize knowledge, b) methods of
learning, and c) visual perception and language understanding, which into turn
are divided into numerous descriptive sub-units. Used as an introductory level
textbook.
This section is a
collection of works from the AI community focused on the development of a
compuational model of the cognitive processes of an individual.
Barr, A., and
Feigenbaum, E. A. 1981. The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence, Volume
1. Los Altos, CA: William Kaufmann.
Bobrow, D.G., and
Collins, A. 1975. Representations and Understanding. New York: Academic
Press.
Brachman, R .J.
1979. "On the epistemological status of semantic networks." In Findler, N.V. (ed.),
Associative Networks: Representation and Use of Knowledge by Computers, pp.
3-50. New York: Academic Press.
Covers the
development of semantic networks as motivated by psychological research on
memory, linguistic research on sentence understanding, AI research on simulation
and modeling of devices, and research on learning. Expands on earlier Brachmann
work in 1977 "What is a Concept," and covers structured inheritance languages
for the structuring of knowledge and descriptions in terms of primitives in
language.
Brachman, R. J.,
and Levesque, H. J. 1985. Readings in Knowledge Representation. Los
Altos, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
Brooks, R. A.
1991. "Intelligence without representation." Artificial Intelligence.
Vol. 47, 1-3 (January 1991): 139-160.
Buchmann. B. G.,
and Shortliffe, E. H. 1990. Rule-based Expert Systems: the MYCIN Experiments
of the Stanford Heuristic Programming Project. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Ceccatto, H. A.,
and Huberman, B. A. 1988. " The complexity of hierarchical systems." Physica
Scripta, Vol. 37 1988): 145-150. Hierarchical complexity measures.
Clancey, W. J.
1985. "Heuristic classification." Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 27, 3
(December 1985): 289-350.
Clancey, W. J.,
and Letsinger, R. 1981. "NEOMYCIN: Reconfiguring a rule-based expert system for
application to teaching." In Proceedings of the Seventh International Joint
Conference on Artificial Intelligence, pp. 829-836. Los Altos, CA: William
Kaufmann, 1981.
Clancey, W. J.,
and Shortliffe, E. H. 1984. Reading in Medical Artificial Intelligence: The
First Decade. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1984.
Clancy, W. J.
1989. "The frame of reference problem in the design of intelligent machines." In
van Lehn, K. (ed.) Architectures for Intelligence: The Twenty-Second Carnegie
Symposium on Cognition, pp. 357-423. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Clancy advocates
that knowledge engineering is a practical engineering activity with a distinct
goal from artificial intelligence. He draws on the social sciences for insights
towards knowledge-level analysis as relativistic to the user.
Davis, E. 1990.
Representations in Commonsense Knowledge. San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
Davis, R., and
King, J. 1976. "An overview of production systems." In Elcock, E. W. and Michie,
D. (eds.), Machine Intelligence 8, pp. 300-332. New York: Wiley.
Dubois, D., Prade,
H., and Yager, R. R. (eds.). 1993. Readings in Fuzzy Sets for Intelligent
Systems. San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
Ericsson, K. A.,
and Simon, H. A. 1984. "Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data." Cambridge:
MIT Press.
Covers the
scientific basis of protocol analysis - using verbal thinking-aloud protocols as
data about mental processes.
Fisher, D. 1987.
"Improving inference through conceptual clustering." IN Proceedings of the
National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, AAAI- 87, Seattle,
Washington. Los Altos, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
Foder, J. A.,
Pylyshyn, Z. W. 1988. "Connectionism and cognitive architecture: A critical
analysis." In Cognition, Vol. 28 1988. Reprinted in Pinker, S., and
Mehler, J. (eds.) Connections and Symbols, pp.3-72. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Garfinkel, H.
1967. Studies in Ethnomethodology. New York: Prentice Hall.
Gazzaniga, M. S.
1985. The Social Brain: Discovering the Networks of the Mind. New York:
Basic Books.
Goldin, S. E., and
Thorndyke, P. W. 1981. Spatial Learning and Reasoning Skill. Rand Note
R-2805-ARMY, July 1981.
Goldstein, I., and Papert, S. 1977. "Artificial intelligence, language, and the
study of knowledge." Cognitive Science, Vol. 1, 1 (January 1977): 84-123.
Graham, I., and
Jones, P.L. 1988. Expert Systems: Knowledge, Uncertainty, and Decision.
London, UK: Chapman and Hall.
Hayes, P. J. 1974.
"Some problems and non-problems in representation theory." Proceedings of the
AISB Summer Conference, pp. 63-79, University of Sussex.
Hayes, P. J. 1985.
"The second naïve physics manifesto." In Brachman, R. J., and Leversques, H. J.
(eds), Readings in Knowledge Representation. Los Altos, CA: Morgan
Kaufmann.
Hendrix, G. G.
1975. "Expanding the utility of semantic networks through partitioning."
Proceedings of the Fourth International Joint Conference on Artificial
Intelligence, Sep. 3-8, pp. 115-121. Tbilisi, Georgia, U.S.S.R.
Hirst, G. 1989. "Ontological assumptions in knowledge representation." In
Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, pp. 157-169. San
Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
Hoffman, R. R.
1989. "The problem of extracting knowledge of experts from the perspective of
experimental psychology." AI Magazine, Vol. 8, 2 (Summer 1987): 53-67.
Huberman, B. A.,
and Hogg, T. 1986. "Complexity and adaptation." In Physica D, Vol. 22
1986): 376-384. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Kahn, K. 1976.
An Actor-based Computer Animation Language. MIT AI Working Paper No. 120,
1976.
Kahn, K., and
Gorry, G. S. 1977. "Mechanizing temporal knowledge." Artificial Intelligence,
Vol. 9, 1977): 87-108.
Kahn, R. E., and
Cerf, V. G. 1988. An Open Architecture for a Digital Library System and a
Plan for its Development. Reston, VA: Corporation for National Research
Initiatives.
This paper coins
the word KnowBot to refer to computational agents that can navigate a network
and perform services.
Kolodner, J. L.,
and Riesbeck, C. K. 1986. Experience, Memory, and Reasoning. Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kosslyn, S. M.,
and Pomerantz, J. R. 1997. "Imagery, propositions, and the form of internal
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Krauss, R. M.
1988. "Mutual knowledge and communicative effectiveness." In Conference on
Technology and Cooperative Work. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona.
Lenat, D. B., Feigenbaum, E. A. 1991. "On the thresholds of knowledge."
Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 47, 1-3 (January 1991): 185-250.
Talks about the
proposal for a project to "encode the knowledge of the world."
Leversque, H. J.
1986. "Making believers out of computers." Artificial Intelligence, Vol.
30, 1 1986): 81-108.
Levesques, H. J.,
and Brachman, R. J. 1985. "A fundamental tradeoff in knowledge representation
and reasoning" (revised version). In Brachman, R. J. and Leversque, H. J.
(eds.), Reading in Knowledge Representation., pp. 41-70. Los
Altos, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 1985.
Marcus, S. (ed.).
1988. Automating Knowledge Acquisition for Expert Systems. Boston: Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1988.
McGee, M. G. 1979.
Human spatial abilities: "Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic,
hormonal, and neurological influences." Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 86
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Miller, L. 1978.
"Has artificial intelligence contributed to the understanding of the mind? A
critique of arguments for and against." Cognitive Science, Vol. 2 1978):
111-129.
Motta, E.
Eisenstadt, M., Pitman, K., and West, M. 1988. "Support for knowledge
acquisition in the knowledge engineer’s assistant (KEATS). Expert Systems.
Vol. 5 1 (February 1988): 6-28.
Newell, A,. 1984. Unified Theories of Cognition. Cambridge: MIT Press.
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1 1982): 87-127.
Newell lays out
intelligence in physical symbols systems in terms of levels, There is the symbol
level at which tokens are manipulated and the knowledge level at which meaning
is ascribed.
Newell, A., and Simon, H. A. 1976. "Computer science as empirical enquiry:
Symbols and search. "Communications of the ACM, Vol. 19, 3 (March 1976):
113-126.
Paper where Newell
and Simon articulated the physical symbol system hypothesis.
Nisbett, R. and Ross, L. 1980. Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings
of Social Judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Pylyshyn, Z. W. 1984. Computation and Cognition. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Robertson, G. C.,
Card, S. K., and Mackinlay, J. D. 1993. "Information visualization using 3D
interactive animation." Communications of the ACM, Vol. 36, 4 (April
1993): 57-71.
Schoor, H., and
Rappaport, A. (eds.) 1989. Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence.
Melo Park, CA: AAAI/MIT Press.
Simon, H. A. 1981. The Sciences of the Artificial, 2nd
edition, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1981.
This book is a classic investigation of complex systems, the process of design,
and artificial intelligence. The author is a pioneer in the study of the
artificial (objects and phenomena that result from human intervention in the
natural world), the study of complex systems (complexity), and the science of
design. He has proposed new methods for the study of design that includes
devising artifacts (objects and phenomena) to attain goals. This edition also
includes discussions on current themes and tools (the mathematics of chaos,
adaptive systems, genetic algorithms) used to analyze complexity and complex
systems. A common theme throughout is the thesis that a physical symbol system
has the necessary means for intelligent action.
Smith, B. C. 1991.
The owl and the electric encyclopedia. Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 47,
1-3 (January 1991): 251-288. Response to Lenat and Feigenbaum (1991).
Stefik, Mark. 1995. Introduction to knowledge systems. San Francisco:
Morgan Kaufmann.
Stefik, M.,
Foster, G., Bobrow, D. G., Kahn, K., Lanning, S., and Suchman, L. 1987. "Beyond
the chalkboard: Computer support for collaboration and problem solving in
meetings." Communications of the ACM, Vol. 30, 1 (1987): 32-47.
Szolovits, P.
(ed.) 1982. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, AAAS Selected Symposium
51. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Tong, C.
1988. Knowledge-based Designed. Doctoral dissertation, Computer Science
Department, Stanford University.
von Foerster, Heinz, ed. 1995. Cybernetics of cybernetics: The control of
control and the communication of communication. 2nd ed.
Minneapolis: Future Systems.
Weigend, Andreas S., and Neil A. Gershenfeld, eds. 1994. Time series
prediction: Forecasting the future and understanding the past. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Wiener, Norbert. 1961. Cybernetics: Or control and communication in the
animal and the machine. 2nd ed. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Winograd, T. 1979.
"Beyond programming languages." Communications of the ACM, Vol. 22, 7
(July 1979): 391-401.
Recommends the
need for an expressive, descriptive calculus capable of describing the knowledge
that a computer system must use to adapt to change.
Woods, W. A. 1975. "What’s in a link? Foundations for semantic networks." In
Bobrow, D. G., and Collins, A. M. (eds.), Representation and Understanding:
Studies in Cognitive Science, pp. 35-82. New York: Academic Press.
Woodward. J.
(ed.). 1989. Geometric Reasoning. Oxford, UK: Clarendon.
How is knowledge
transferred between individuals in a collective.
Axelrod, Robert M. 1997.
The Complexity of
Cooperation : Agent-Based Models of Competition and Collaboration
(Princeton Studies in Complexity) 1997 ISBN: 0691015678
Axelrod, Robert. 1984.
Evolution of
Cooperation.
New York: Basic Books.
Epstein, Joshua M. 1996.
Artificial
Societys: Social Science From the Bottom Up.
Wash. D.C.: Brookings Institute.
Thagard, P. 1993.
Computational
Philosophy of Science.
Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press (Chapter 10).
Aha, D., and Ram,
A. 1991. Preface. Adaptation of Knowledge for Reuse: Papers from the 1994
Fall Symposium, Technical Report FS-95-04, American Association for
Artificial Intelligence.
Acorn, T., and
Walden, S. 1992. "SMART: Support Management Automated Reasoning Technology for
Compaq Customer Service." In Innovative Applications of Artificial
Intelligence 4, 3-18. Menlo Park, Calif.: AAAI Press.
Bareiss, R. 1989.
Exemplar-Based Knowledge Acquisition: A Unified Approach to Concept
Representation, Classification, and Learning. San Diego, Calif.: Academic.
Brachmann, R. J.
1985 "An Overview of the KL-ONE Knowledge Representation System." Cognitive
Science 9:171-216.
Burke, R. 1992
"Knowledge Acquisition and Education: A Case for Stories." Presented at the
Symposium on Cognitive Aspects of Knowledge Acquisition, Stanford, Calif.,
March, 1992.
Edelson, D. 1993
"Learning from Stories: Indexing and Reminding in a Socratic Case-Based Teaching
System for Elementary School Biology," Technical Report, 43, Institute for the
Learning Sciences, Northwestern University.
Biology
Wilson, Edward O. 1975. Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, Belknap Press.
Examines the elementary biological factors involved with the social evolution of
species. Contents include: a) basic history and common theory, b) social
mechanisms (such as communication, dominance, relationship), and c)
illustrations of these mechanisms as observed in many species from colonial
microorganisms to humans. This brilliant book was considered controversial due
to scientific theorizing regarding the nature of human society. Used as a
university textbook.
Anderson, J. 1983.
The Architecture of Cognition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press.
Anderson, J.R.
1990, "A theory of the origins of human knowledge", in Readings in Machine
Learning, eds J. Shavik & T. Dietterich, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San
Francisco, Cal, pp. 664-83
Brown, A. L. and A. S. Palincsar. 1989. "Guided cooperative learning and
individual knowledge acquisition." In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, Learning,
and Instruction: Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, pp. 393-451.
Flavell, J. H.
1979. Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: a new area of
cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist 34: 906-911.
Forrest-Pressley,
D. L., G. E. MacKinnon, and T. G. Waller (Eds.). 1985. Metacognition, Cognition,
and Human Performance, Vols. 1 and 2. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Gowen, D. Bob and
Novak, Joseph D. 1984. Learning How to Learn. New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press.
Gowlett, J. 1984.
"Mental abilities of early man: a look at some hard evidence." In R. Foley
(Ed.), Hominid Evolution and Community Ecology. London: Academic Press,
pp. 167-192.
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Holland, John H.
et al. 1986. Induction: Processes of Inference, Learning, and Discovery.
Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. 1986.
Johnson-Laird,
P.N. 1982. "Propositional Representations, Procedural Semantics, and Mental
Models." In J. Mehler, et al. eds.,
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Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Johnson-Laird,
P.N. 1983. Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference
and Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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Kuhnemann, D.,
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Conceptual
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